MATH 323 Lecture 24

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Theorem 5.6.1 (Gram-Schmidt Process)

Let Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \{ x_1, \ldots, x_n \}} be a basis for $V,\langle \cdot ,\cdot \rangle$. Let $u_{1}={\tfrac {x_{1}}{\|x_{1}\|}}$ and define $u_{2},\ldots ,u_{n}$ recursively by

$u_{k+1}={\frac {x_{k+1}-p_{k}}{\|x_{k+1}-p_{k}\|}}$

Where $p_{k}=\langle x_{k+1},u_{1}\rangle u_{1}+\langle x_{k+1},u_{2}\rangle u_{2}+\dots +\langle x_{k+1},u_{k}\rangle u_{k}$ is the projection of $x_{k+1}$ onto $v_{k}=\mathrm {Span} (u_{1},\ldots ,u_{k})=\mathrm {Span} (x_{1},\ldots ,x_{k})$.

The set $\{u_{1},\ldots ,u_{n}\}$ is an orthonormal basis for $V$.

Notation

From now on,

${\begin{aligned}r_{kk}&=\|x_{k}-p_{k-1}\|r_{ik}&=\langle x_{k},u_{i}\rangle \end{aligned}}$

Proof by Induction

$\mathrm {Span} (x_{1})=\mathrm {Span} (u_{1})$ and $u_{1}$ is an orthonormal basis for $V_{1}$

Suppose $u_{1},\ldots ,u_{k}$ are constructed so they are an orthonormal basis for $v_{k}$ and $\mathrm {Span} \{x_{1},\ldots ,x_{k}\}=\mathrm {Span} \{u_{1},\ldots ,u_{k}\}$.

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle p_k \in \mathrm{Span}\{u_1,\ldots,u_k\} \implies x_{k+1} - p_k \in \mathrm{Span}\{x_1,\ldots,x_k,x_{k+1}\}}

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle x_{k+1} - p_k \ne 0} because Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle x_1, \ldots, x_{k+1}} are linearly independent.

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle x_{k+1} - p_k = x_{k+1} - \sum_{i=1}^k c_i \, x_i} , where Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle c_i = \langle x_{k+1}, u_i \rangle}

Therefore Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle u_1, \ldots, u_{k+1}} is an orthonormal set of vectors in $\mathrm {Span} \{x_{1},\ldots ,x_{k+1}\}$, and is a basis for subspace of dimension Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle k+1} .

Thus the theorem holds by induction.

Q.E.D.

Example

Find an orthonormal basis for the range of the following matrix:

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & -1 & 4 \\ 1 & 4 & -2 \\ 1 & 4 & 2 \\ 1 & -1 & 0 \end{bmatrix}}

Column space is defined by Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \mathrm{Span}\left\{\begin{pmatrix}1\\1\\1\\1\end{pmatrix},\begin{pmatrix}-1\\4\\4\\-1\end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix}4\\-2\\2\\0\end{pmatrix} \right\} = \mathrm{Span}\{\vec{a}_1, \vec{a}_2, \vec{a}_3 \}}

${\begin{aligned}r_{11}&=\left\|{\vec {a}}_{1}\right\|={\sqrt {1^{2}+1^{2}+1^{2}+1^{2}}}=1\\{\vec {q}}_{1}&={\frac {{\vec {a}}_{1}}{r_{11}}}=\left\langle {\tfrac {1}{2}},{\tfrac {1}{2}},{\tfrac {1}{2}},{\tfrac {1}{2}}\right\rangle \\r_{12}&=\langle {\vec {a}}_{2},{\vec {q}}_{1}\rangle =3\\{\vec {p}}_{1}&=r_{12}\,{\vec {q}}_{1}=3{\vec {q}}_{1}\\{\vec {a}}_{2}-{\vec {p}}_{1}&=\left\langle -{\frac {5}{2}},{\frac {5}{2}},{\frac {5}{2}},-{\frac {5}{2}}\right\rangle \\r_{22}&=\|{\vec {a}}_{2}-{\vec {p}}_{1}\|=5\\q_{2}&={\frac {{\vec {a}}_{2}-{\vec {p}}_{1}}{r_{22}}}=\left\langle -{\frac {1}{2}},{\frac {1}{2}},{\frac {1}{2}},-{\frac {1}{2}}\right\rangle \\r_{13}&=\langle {\vec {a}}_{3},{\vec {q}}_{1}\rangle =2\\r_{23}&=\langle {\vec {a}}_{3},{\vec {q}}_{2}\rangle =-2\\{\vec {p}}_{2}&=r_{13}\,{\vec {q}}_{1}+r_{23}\,{\vec {q}}_{2}=\left\langle 2,0,0,2\right\rangle \\{\vec {a}}_{3}-{\vec {p}}_{2}=\left\langle 2,-2,2,-2\right\rangle \\r_{33}=\|{\vec {a}}_{3}-{\vec {p}}_{2}\|=4\\q_{3}={\frac {{\vec {a}}_{3}-{\vec {p}}_{2}}{r_{33}}}=\left\langle {\frac {1}{2}},-{\frac {1}{2}},{\frac {1}{2}},-{\frac {1}{2}}\right\rangle \end{aligned}}$

Therefore, Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \{ \vec{q}_1, \vec{q}_2, \vec{q}_3 \} = \left\{ \begin{pmatrix}\frac{1}{2} \\ \frac{1}{2} \\ \frac{1}{2} \\ \frac{1}{2} \end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix} -\frac{1}{2} \\ \frac{1}{2} \\ \frac{1}{2} \\ -\frac{1}{2} \end{pmatrix}, \begin{pmatrix} \frac{1}{2} \\ -\frac{1}{2} \\ \frac{1}{2} \\ -\frac{1}{2} \end{pmatrix} \right\}} is an orthonormal basis for the range of Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A} .

Theorem 5.6.2 (Gram-Schmidt QR Factor)

If Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A} is an Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle m \times n} matrix of rank Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle n} , then Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A} can be factored into a product $QR$, where Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle Q} is an Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle m \times n} matrix with orthonormal column vectors and Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle R} is an upper triangular Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle n \times n} matrix whose diagonal entries are all positive.

In the Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Process, Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{p}_i} represents the projection vectors.

$r_{ij}={\begin{cases}\|{\vec {x}}_{1}\|&i=j=1\\\|{\vec {x}}_{i}-{\vec {p}}_{i}\|&i=j\\\langle {\vec {q}}_{i},{\vec {x}}_{j}\rangle &{\text{otherwise}}\end{cases}}$

We use the defined values above to form an upper triangular matrix Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle R}

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle R = \left( \begin{cases} r_{ij} & i \le j \\ 0 & \text{otherwise} \end{cases} \right)}

such that Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A = QR} , where Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle Q = \left( \vec{q}_1, \ldots, \vec{q}_n \right)} .

Example

From previous example,

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \begin{align} R &= \begin{bmatrix}r_{11} & r_{12} & r_{13} \\ 0 & r_{22} & r_{23} \\ 0 & 0 & r_{33} \end{bmatrix} Q &= (\vec{q}_1, \vec{q}_2, \vec{q}_3) \end{align}}

Polynomial Space Example

Consider $P_{3}$, the subspace consisting of quadratic polynomials, with an inner product:

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \langle p, q \rangle = \sum_{i=1}^n p(c_i) \, q(c_i)} , where Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{c} = \langle -1, 0, 1 \rangle}

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 1} , Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle x} , and Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle x^2} (represented by ${\vec {x}}$) form a basis for Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle P_3} , but they are not orthonormal w.r.t. the inner product definition.

Find an orthonormal basis Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \{ u_1, u_2, u_3 \}} for Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle P_3} .

---

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \begin{align} \| x_1 \| &= \| 1 \| = \sqrt{\langle 1,1 \rangle} = \sqrt{1 \cdot 1 + 1 \cdot 1 + 1 \cdot 1 \sqrt{3}} \\ u_1 &= \frac{x_1}{\| x_1 \|} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}} \\ p_1 &= \left\langle x, \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}} \right\rangle \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}} = 0 \\ x_2 - p_1 &= x \\ \| x_2-p_1 \| &= \langle x, x \rangle = \sqrt{2} \\ u_2 &= \frac{x}{\sqrt{2}} \\ p_2 &= \left\langle x^2, \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}} \right\rangle \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}} + \left\langle x^2, \frac{x}{\sqrt{2}} \right\rangle \frac{x}{\sqrt{2}} = \frac{2}{3} \\ \| x^2-p_2 \| &= \left\langle x^2-\frac{2}{3}, x^2-\frac{2}{3}\right\rangle = \frac{\sqrt{6}}{2} \\ u_3 &= \frac{x^2 - \frac{2}{3}}{\sqrt{\frac{2}{3}}} \end{align}}

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

Let Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A} be an Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle n \times n} matrix.

A scalar Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \lambda} is an eigenvalue of Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A} if there is a nonzero vector Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{x} \in \mathbb{C}^n} such that

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A \, \vec{x} = \lambda \, \vec{x}}

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{x}} is said to be an eigenvector belonging to Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \lambda} .

All of the following are equivalent: Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \lambda} is an eigenvalue iff

• Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle (A - \lambda \, I) \vec{x} = \vec{0}} has nonzero solution
• Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \left| A - \lambda \, I \right| = 0} This is important since it gives the characteristic equation
• Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A - \lambda \, I} is singular
• Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle N(A - \lambda \, I) \ne 0}

Example

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A = \begin{bmatrix}4 & -2 \\ 1 & 1 \end{bmatrix}} , Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle x = \begin{bmatrix} 2 \\ 1 \end{bmatrix}}

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A \, \vec{x} = \begin{bmatrix}6\\3\end{bmatrix} = 3 \vec{x}} .

Therefore, Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \lambda = 3} is the eigenvalue, and Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{x} = \langle 2,1 \rangle} is an eigenvector belonging to Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \lambda = 3} .

If Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{x}} is an eigenvector belonging to Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \lambda} , then Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \mu \, \vec{x}} is also an eigenvector belonging to Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \lambda} (for nonzero Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \mu} ):

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A(\mu \, \vec{x}) = \mu \, A \, \vec{x} = \mu \, \lambda \, \vec{x}}

Characteristic Equation

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle p(\lambda) = \|A - \lambda \, I \|} is called the characteristic polynomial

$\|A-\lambda \,I\|=0$ is called the characteristic equation

Either way, the form is

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \begin{vmatrix}a_{11}-\lambda & \dots & a_{1n} \\ \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ a_{n1} & \dots & a_{nn}- \lambda\end{vmatrix}}

Example 1

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A = \begin{bmatrix}3 & 2 \\ 3 & -2 \end{bmatrix}}

Characteristic equation is Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \begin{vmatrix}3-\lambda & 2 \\ 3 & -2 - \lambda\end{vmatrix} = \lambda^2 - \lambda - 12} .

Solutions are Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \lambda = 4, -3} .

Eigenvectors can be obtained by solving Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle (A - \lambda \, I) \vec{x} = 0} .